[78] Nabatean art shows Greek influences and paintings have been found depicting Dionysian scenes. [19] Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. [52] Promotion of immigration from Greece was important in the establishment of this system. [142] The female nude also became more popular as epitomized by the Aphrodite of Cnidos of Praxiteles and art in general became more erotic (e.g., Leda and the Swan and Scopa's Pothos). Which of the following was not conquered by the Greeks during the Hellenistic period? [109] Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris. Some of the people … Pyrrhus then turned south and invaded Sicily but was unsuccessful and returned to Italy. [6] This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to these new realms, spanning as far as modern-day India. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes.[122]. During the Hellenistic period, Judea became a frontier region between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt and therefore was often the frontline of the Syrian wars, changing hands several times during these conflicts. The Nabatean Kingdom was an Arab state located between the Sinai Peninsula and the Arabian Peninsula. Antigonus II, a student of Zeno of Citium, spent most of his rule defending Macedon against Epirus and cementing Macedonian power in Greece, first against the Athenians in the Chremonidean War, and then against the Achaean League of Aratus of Sicyon. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. At one extreme is the view of the English classical scholar Cornford, who believed that "all the most important and original work was done in the three centuries from 600 to 300 BC". See the answer. The use of heavily armored cataphracts and also horse archers was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and Pontus. Ariarathes I (332–322 BC) was the satrap of Cappadocia under the Persians and after the conquests of Alexander he retained his post. Once the Second Punic War had been resolved, and the Romans had begun to regather their strength, they looked to re-assert their influence in the Balkans, and to curb the expansion of Philip. Hellenistic age, in the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, the period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 bce and the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 bce. Hellenistic monarchies were closely associated with the religious life of the kingdoms they ruled. Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propagandistic image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. Walbank et al. Further inland was the Illyrian Paeonian Kingdom and the tribe of the Agrianes. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through ancient Greek coinage. After Cassander's death in c. 298 BC, however, Demetrius, who still maintained a sizable loyal army and fleet, invaded Macedon, seized the Macedonian throne (294 BC) and conquered Thessaly and most of central Greece (293–291 BC). [130] He was also the first to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis (again with remarkable accuracy). philosophy, discovering 3 types, a new era of scuptures, mathmatics (geometry) and science, along with Astronomy, figuring out 9 planets, circumference of the earth ect.. Ariarathes V also waged war with Rome against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated in 130 BC. This defeat allowed Pontus to invade and conquer the kingdom. However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. Doson led Macedon to victory in the war against the Spartan king Cleomenes III, and occupied Sparta. mathmatics (geometry) and science, along with Astronomy, figuring The major literary product of this cultural syncretism is the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible from Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic to Koiné Greek. Many Scythian elites purchased Greek products and some Scythian art shows Greek influences. Further ruin was brought to Greece by the Roman civil wars, which were partly fought in Greece. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered and assumed full control. In the early 2nd century BC, the Galatians became allies of Antiochus the Great, the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainty over Asia Minor. (1983), "The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan, Cambridge History of Iran 3.1, Cambridge UP, pp. Libraries were also present in Antioch, Pella, and Kos. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007, p. 44. Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) and south-eastern Sicily had been colonized by the Greeks during the 8th century. Throughout the Hellenistic world, these Greco-Macedonian colonists considered themselves by and large superior to the native "barbarians" and excluded most non-Greeks from the upper echelons of courtly and government life. Seleucus received Indian war elephants from the Mauryan empire, and used them to good effect at the battle of Ipsus. Artists such as Peiraikos chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. Hellenistic philosophy is the last period of the philosophy of ancient Greece which followed after the school of Aristotle. The Spartocids were a hellenized Thracian family from Panticapaeum. After the fall of the Seleucid dynasty, the Parthians fought frequently against neighbouring Rome in the Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – AD 217). It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people. Influenced by Philinus of Cos (fl. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea and at the Battle of Asculum. As a result of the confusion in Greece at the end of the Second Macedonian War, the Seleucid Empire also became entangled with the Romans. Undoubtedly Greek influence did spread through the Hellenistic realms, but to what extent, and whether this was a deliberate policy or mere cultural diffusion, have been hotly debated. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent. What are some of the scientific achievements of the Hellenistic period? Hellenistic Civilization DRAFT. Bivar, A.D.H. [105] The final Greek resistance came in 88 BC, when King Mithridates of Pontus rebelled against Rome, captured Roman held Anatolia, and massacred up to 100,000 Romans and Roman allies across Asia Minor. Seeking to re-assert Macedonian power and Greek independence, Philip V's son Perseus incurred the wrath of the Romans, resulting in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). Carthage was a Phoenician colony on the coast of Tunisia. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature.[108]. In 233 BC the Aeacid royal family was deposed and a federal state was set up called the Epirote League. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and … Technological developments from the Hellenistic period include cogged gears, pulleys, the screw, Archimedes' screw, the screw press, glassblowing, hollow bronze casting, surveying instruments, an odometer, the pantograph, the water clock, a water organ, and the Piston pump. [129] Eratosthenes measured the Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy. the Tobiads). The Parthians continued worshipping Greek gods syncretized together with Iranian deities. 8th - 9th grade. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from 4.4 to 78 kg (9.7 to 172.0 lb). At least some Scythians seem to have become Hellenized, because we know of conflicts between the elites of the Scythian kingdom over the adoption of Greek ways. In Asia, Eumenes was betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus who had him executed. The city of Emporion (modern Empúries), originally founded by Archaic-period settlers from Phocaea and Massalia in the 6th century BC near the village of Sant Martí d'Empúries (located on an offshore island that forms part of L'Escala, Catalonia, Spain),[46] was reestablished in the 5th century BC with a new city (neapolis) on the Iberian mainland. The major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Greek dedications, statues, architecture, and inscriptions have all been found. The trends of Hellenization were therefore accompanied by Greeks adopting native ways over time, but this was widely varied by place and by social class. It included a reading room and a collection of paintings. [17] The generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire, but Perdiccas' position was shaky, because, as Arrian writes, "everyone was suspicious of him, and he of them".[18]. After 278 BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the Celtic Kingdom of Tylis ruled by the kings Comontorius and Cavarus, but in 212 BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. Other city states formed federated states in self-defense, such as the Aetolian League (est. [45] A staunch ally of Rome, Massalia retained its independence until it sided with Pompey in 49 BC and was then taken by Caesar's forces. The end of Antigonid Macedon came when Philip V's son, Perseus, was defeated and captured by the Romans in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. What were the political accomplishments of classical Greece? Perdiccas himself would become regent (epimeletes) of the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. After being defeated by Ptolemy IV's forces at Raphia (217 BC), Antiochus III led a long campaign to the east to subdue the far eastern breakaway provinces (212–205 BC) including Bactria, Parthia, Ariana, Sogdiana, Gedrosia and Drangiana. He considerably enlarged the Temple (see Herod's Temple), making it one of the largest religious structures in the world. In this way, hybrid 'Hellenistic' cultures naturally emerged, at least among the upper echelons of society. [101] The core of Carthage's military was the Greek-style phalanx formed by citizen hoplite spearmen who had been conscripted into service, though their armies also included large numbers of mercenaries. After the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony, in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all-powerful. This was primarily a result of the over-ambition of the Macedonian kings, and their unintended provocation of Rome, though Rome was quick to exploit the situation. The poet-critic Callimachus, a staunch elitist, wrote hymns equating Ptolemy II to Zeus and Apollo. New siege engines were developed during this period. Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size. Pages 7-8. For his support against the Seleucids in 190 BC, Eumenes II was rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in Asia Minor. [121] The rise of philosophy and the sciences had removed the gods from many of their traditional domains such as their role in the movement of the heavenly bodies and natural disasters. Developments in painting included experiments in chiaroscuro by Zeuxis and the development of landscape painting and still life painting. Astrology was widely associated with the cult of Tyche (luck, fortune), which grew in popularity during this period. Armenia later became a vassal state of the Seleucid Empire, but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. The word originated from the German term hellenistisch, from ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής (Hellēnistḗs, "one who uses the Greek language"), from Ἑλλάς (Hellás, "Greece"); as if "Hellenist" + "ic". This 'Greco-Macedonian' population (which also included the sons of settlers who had married local women) could make up a phalanx of 35,000 men (out of a total Seleucid army of 80,000) during the reign of Antiochus III. In Arabia, Bahrain, which was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. Demetrius possibly died about 180 BC; numismatic evidence suggests the existence of several other kings shortly thereafter. The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final king Attalus III died in 133 BC without an heir, and taking the alliance to its natural conclusion, willed Pergamum to the Roman Republic. Under Antiochus I (c. 324/323 – 261 BC), however, the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories. Behind his rejection of traditional allegiances lay a profound concern with moral values. When Alexander the Great died (10 June 323 BC), he left behind a huge empire which was composed of many essentially autonomous territories called satraps. The most important source after Polybius is Diodorus Siculus who wrote his Bibliotheca historica between 60 and 30 BC and reproduced some important earlier sources such as Hieronymus, but his account of the Hellenistic period breaks off after the battle of Ipsus (301 BC). Spreading to culture led to culture diffusion in Europe and Asia, also resulting in the creation of the Hellenistic Era. In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. Cappadocia, a mountainous region situated between Pontus and the Taurus mountains, was ruled by a Persian dynasty. [144] Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of Artemis at Sardis, and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300 BC). With a skilled navy to protect its trade fleets from pirates and an ideal strategic position covering the routes from the east into the Aegean, Rhodes prospered during the Hellenistic period. However, local cultures were not replaced, and mostly went on as before, but now with a new Greco-Macedonian or otherwise Hellenized elite. Mithridates, himself of mixed Persian and Greek ancestry, presented himself as the protector of the Greeks against the 'barbarians' of Rome styling himself as "King Mithridates Eupator Dionysus"[73] and as the "great liberator". One example is Athens, which had been decisively defeated by Antipater in the Lamian war (323–322 BC) and had its port in the Piraeus garrisoned by Macedonian troops who supported a conservative oligarchy. Hierax carved off most of Seleucid Anatolia for himself, but was defeated, along with his Galatian allies, by Attalus I of Pergamon who now also claimed kingship. Indian sources also maintain religious contact between Buddhist monks and the Greeks, and some Greco-Bactrians did convert to Buddhism. These policies can also be interpreted as the result of Alexander's possible megalomania[112] during his later years. Introduction. In 191 BC, the Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed him at Thermopylae and obliged him to withdraw to Asia. [139] At the other is the view of the Italian physicist and mathematician Lucio Russo, who claims that scientific method was actually born in the 3rd century BC, to be forgotten during the Roman period and only revived in the Renaissance.[140]. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II Theos, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting coins showing himself wearing a royal diadem and claiming kingship. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. It was not until the reign of Phraates I (c. 176–171 BC), that the Arsacids would again begin to assert their independence.[75]. ... how was the purpose served by architecture and sculpture in the hellenistic period similar to the arts of the golden age… Antiochus III ("the Great") conducted several vigorous campaigns to retake all the lost provinces of the empire since the death of Seleucus I. Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon and finally in a war against the Seleucids. The third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus. Though the Nabateans originally worshipped their traditional gods in symbolic form such as stone blocks or pillars, during the Hellenistic period they began to identify their gods with Greek gods and depict them in figurative forms influenced by Greek sculpture. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. The exact justification for the invasion remains unclear, but by about 175 BC, the Greeks ruled over parts of northwestern India. Theaters have also been found: for example, in Ai-Khanoum on the edge of Bactria, the theater has 35 rows – larger than the theater in Babylon. The Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom on the southern coast of the Black Sea. These cities retained traditional Greek city state institutions such as assemblies, councils and elected magistrates, but this was a facade for they were always controlled by the royal Seleucid officials. The Hasmonean Dynasty eventually disintegrated in a civil war, which coincided with civil wars in Rome. “Under the influence: Hellenism in ancient Jewish life.”. Succeeding his father, Alexander took over the Persian war himself. The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year. [111] Cities and colonies were centers of administrative control and Macedonian power in a newly conquered region. By the 2nd century BC, the kingdom of Numidia also began to see Hellenistic culture influence its art and architecture. [27] After Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens in 307 BC and restored the democracy, the Athenians honored him and his father Antigonus by placing gold statues of them on the agora and granting them the title of king. The erosion of the empire continued under Seleucus II, who was forced to fight a civil war (239–236 BC) against his brother Antiochus Hierax and was unable to keep Bactria, Sogdiana and Parthia from breaking away. Get … The Odrysians used Greek as the language of administration[38] and of the nobility. The dominant ideals of Hellenistic art were those of sensuality and passion.[143]. [109] Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity. Oxford University Press page 255. The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the Ptolemies adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as god-kings. In spite of originally being a revolt against Greek overlordship, the Hasmonean kingdom and also the Herodian kingdom which followed gradually became more and more hellenized. After holding out for one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305–304 BC), the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes to commemorate their victory. Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I. The Scythie nations, down to the fall of the Western empire, p. 4. syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes. J.-C. Webber, Christopher; Odyrsian arms equipment and tactics. These generals became known as the Diadochi (Greek: Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, meaning "Successors"). This presented Antiochus III with a pretext to invade Greece and 'liberate' it from Roman influence, thus starting the Roman-Syrian War (192–188 BC). 21–99. Macedonian king Alexander the Great led the biggest expansion conquests for the Greeks, establishing kingdoms in North Africa, Persia, the Middle East, right up to India in Southeast Asia. The numismatic evidence together with archaeological finds and the scant historical records suggest that the fusion of eastern and western cultures reached its peak in the Indo-Greek kingdom. Antiochus then banned key Jewish religious rites and traditions in Judea. For some purposes the period is extended for a further three and a half centuries, to the move by Constantine the Great of his After conquering the Indo-Greeks, the Kushan empire took over Greco-Buddhism, the Greek language, Greek script, Greek coinage and artistic styles. The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia (who worked under Alexander, Antigonus I and other successors), Duris of Samos and Phylarchus which were used by surviving sources are all lost. [7] This mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world. The separation of the Indo-Greek kingdom from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom resulted in an even more isolated position, and thus the details of the Indo-Greek kingdom are even more obscure than for Bactria. The style of the enlarged temple and other Herodian architecture shows significant Hellenistic architectural influence. The coins minted in Massalia have been found in all parts of Liguro-Celtic Gaul. Its capital was the city of Petra, an important trading city on the incense route. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina, allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness. Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul were mostly limited to the Mediterranean coast of Provence, France. The concept of Hellenization, meaning the adoption of Greek culture in non-Greek regions, has long been controversial. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 b.c. The popular philosopher Epicurus promoted a view of disinterested gods living far away from the human realm in metakosmia. Astronomers like Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) built upon the measurements of the Babylonian astronomers before him, to measure the precession of the Earth. Nabatean material culture does not show any Greek influence until the reign of Aretas III Philhellene in the 1st century BC. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek mercenaries (misthophoroi; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. The last Hasmonean ruler, Antigonus II Mattathias, was captured by Herod and executed in 37 BC. His descendant, Attalus I, defeated the invading Galatians and proclaimed himself an independent king. Even barbarians, such as the Galatians, were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the noble savage. The Bithynians were a Thracian people living in northwest Anatolia. Politically, the Hellenistic Period is characterized by a division and a split from Alexander's former empire, with endless wars between the Diadochi and their successors. The Greek-language word Hellas (Ἑλλάς, Ellás) was originally the widely recognized name of Greece, from which the word Hellenistic was derived. The era saw stunning achievements in the arts, philosophy, and technology. The Seleucid–Parthian wars continued as the Seleucids invaded Mesopotamia under Antiochus VII Sidetes (reigned 138–129 BC), but he was eventually killed by a Parthian counterattack. The Parthians used Greek as well as their own Parthian language (though lesser than Greek) as languages of administration and also used Greek drachmas as coinage. THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY, SECOND EDITION, VOLUME VII, PART I: The Hellenistic World, p. 1. Hellenistic age - Hellenistic age - Philosophy: The philosophers of the period pursued autarkeia (self-sufficiency), or nonattachment. His son, Zipoetes I of Bithynia maintained this autonomy against Lysimachus and Seleucus I, and assumed the title of king (basileus) in 297 BC. 66% average accuracy. No longer was Greece a minor collection of city states, but a mighty empire. Prag & Quinn (editors). Nicomedes also invited the Celtic Galatians into Anatolia as mercenaries, and they later turned on his son Prusias I, who defeated them in battle. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" (Natural History, Book XXXV.112). Apart from these cities, there were also a large number of Seleucid garrisons (choria), military colonies (katoikiai) and Greek villages (komai) which the Seleucids planted throughout the empire to cement their rule. Copyright © 2021 Multiply Media, LLC. These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the Ptolemaieia at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. [97] The Greek admiral Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit these islands. In the interval from Aratus and Aristarchus of Samos (third century BCE) to Claudius Ptolemy (second century CE), there was a dramatic restructuring and reorientation in what was called astrologia—a term typically rendered by “astronomy,” though “celestial science” or “science of the heavens” would be better. Notice the florals on the bull capital from Rampurva, and the style of the horse on the Sarnath capital, now the emblem of the Republic of India.". [104] The Romans, also allied with the Aetolian League of Greek city-states (which resented Philip's power), thus declared war on Macedon in 200 BC, starting the Second Macedonian War. The Illyrians: history and culture, History and Culture Series, The Illyrians: History and Culture, Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, page 233&236, "The Illyrians liked decorated belt-buckles or clasps (see figure 29). In states such as the Achaean league, this also involved the admission of other ethnic groups into the federation with equal rights, in this case, non-Achaeans. Various parts of Thrace were under Macedonian rule under Philip II of Macedon, Alexander the Great, Lysimachus, Ptolemy II, and Philip V but were also often ruled by their own kings. What is the denotative and connotative meaning of clouds? In 338 BC, Philip defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the Battle of Chaeronea after a decade of desultory conflict. Carte de la Macédoine et du monde égéen vers 200 av. He had been a student of Callimachus and later became chief librarian (prostates) of the library of Alexandria. The early Hellenistic Age also saw enduring achievements in the arts and learning, however. In 4th-century BC Sicily the leading Greek city and hegemon was Syracuse. Up to two thirds of the population emigrated, and the Macedonian army could only count on a levy of 25,000 men, a significantly smaller force than under Philip II.[26]. However, while this campaign was in its early stages, he was assassinated.[4]. Macedon was located at the periphery of the Greek world, and although its royal family claimed Greek descent, the Macedonians themselves were looked down upon as semi-barbaric by the rest of the Greeks. Specific areas conquered by Alexander's invading army, including Egypt and areas of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia "fell" willingly to conquest and viewed Alexander as more of a liberator than a conqueror.[16]. They retained their independence by the maintenance of a powerful navy, by maintaining a carefully neutral posture and acting to preserve the balance of power between the major Hellenistic kingdoms.[30]. [99] Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.[100]. Apollonius and Callimachus spent much of their careers feuding with each other. [74] Tigranes' successor Artavasdes II even composed Greek tragedies himself. Rome now demanded that the Achaean League, the last stronghold of Greek independence, be dissolved. The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC[1] and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year. Athens was then occupied by Macedonian officials traditional religion build support there and in the Hellenistic monarchs the!, Libya spite of this new difficult period a spear—and the country into... Region situated between Pontus and the Arabian Peninsula adoption of Greek colonists into the era saw stunning achievements in world... Limited to the new Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms with! 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